Final Essay (without visuals)

Artists manipulate form to convey content dictated by leaders. 

The concept of commissioning art has been around for quite a while. When someone commissions a piece of art, they compensate an artist to create the art in the vision of the patron. The patron can request for it to look a certain way or deliver a specific message, but the work itself is ultimately in the hands of the artist. The “message” decreed by the patron will be referred to as the content, and means by which this content is illustrated will be referred to as form. The form clearly has influence on the content, and artists often display a high degree of sophistication and creativity when manipulating such form in the name of content.

For example, in a statue titled “Hatshepsut in a Devotional Attitude” (Unknown artist, Dynasty 18, 1479–1458 B.C.), was commissioned by the Pharaoh Hatshepsut to commemorate her reign. Although she was a woman, she is shown with male pharaoh attributes, such as the beard and headdress. “For the ancient Egyptians, the ideal king was a young man in the prime of life. The physical reality was of less importance, so an old man, a baby, or even a woman who held the titles of pharaoh could be represented in this ideal form, as in this representation of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut. Although many of Hatshepsut’s statues depict her as the ideal king, the inscriptions always allude to her feminine gender, sometimes by using both masculine and feminine grammatical forms, sometimes by including her personal name, Hatshepsut, which means ‘foremost of noble women.'” (The Met). Also, the rigid stance she takes is typical of statues of royalty in these times, which further reinforces the view of Hatshepsut as Pharaoh. The content is meant to present her as a pharaoh, and only males were taken seriously as pharaohs, so adding male features contributes to the overall goal of Hatshepsut not only being taken seriously, but commemorating her as surpassing her male predecessors. Her Mortuary Temple was full of artifacts such as this, until her son had it all destroyed.

Next, the Venus de Milo was made by Alexander of Antioch. This sculpture is meant to depict the Greek goddess Aphrodite (the common name, Venus the Milo, is the Roman translation of a sculpture made in Ancient Greek times), and was likely commissioned by city-state leaders, rather than an individual. She is rather well known today. She represents the Greek ideal, illustrating the Greek definition of beauty: balance, order, proportion, and harmony. The incredibly advanced proportion of her body and the cascading nature of the fabrics draped around her makes this piece special, not to mention that it was made in the year 101 BC. “Generally speaking, shadows are more forceful when used in moderation. The Venus de Milo in particular, owes her strength to this moderation. The effect which she produces is powerful because there is no jarring note to distract the attention. Approaching her step by step, one persuades oneself that she has been modeled by the continuous washing of the sea. Is not this what the ancients meant when they said that Aphrodite was created in the bosom of the waters?” (Rodin, Seaton-Schmidt). The use of shadow and contour makes for a greater degree of detail, which is important in her overall purpose. She was certainly a beholder of the Greek ideal, but she was also meant to glorify Aphrodite. There has been a dispute surrounding whether this was meant to present Aphrodite or other Greek mythological figures, but it can safely be said that her ideality is a way of glorifying figure that was worshipped in these times. The fact that this goddess is ideal makes people more willing to worship her.

In addition to the hand of the artist being easily seen in sculpture, it can also be seen in architecture. The Hagia Sophia, built and rebuilt over the years, is a great example. It was first built in 415 as a Greek Orthodox church and the seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople. In the 1200s, for about 50 years, it was a Roman Catholic church as well. The Regale Ekklesia, as it was known in these days, was originally created by architects Anthemios of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos, who were most likely influenced by the mathematical theories of Archimedes. Originally, it had colored marble and intricate decorations on the floor and elsewhere were a result of Byzantine decree. As tine went on, the plans of this church were falling victim to earthquakes and such, causing it to be built and rebuilt a number of times. The mosaics on the sides of the walls were commissioned by different emperors. The images are vast, some with royal significance, some with religious significanc, and some with both. The different mosaic commissioned by different emperors cannot be seen, as they are covered by Islamic art. It was turned into a mosque in 1453 under Sultan Mehmet II. Over the next century, 4 minarets were built around the structure that carry religious significance. Ornate chandeliers commemorate Salesman’s conquest of Hungary, and the giant discs on the walls are Arabic calligraphy of the names of the 4 caliphs, the first four followers of Muhammad (pbuh). The dome was meant to symbolize the heavens. The base of the dome is ringed with windows, which allow light to flood the space, illuminating the works of art on the walls (Pentcheva). The placement and frequency of windows throughout the structure is an important attribute of form, which conveys content by allowing rays of light in a high frequency to illuminate the space in a controlled and deliberate manner. The overall content remains consistent through both of the religions that have inhabited this building: to promote religious education and present it in a way that people feel welcomed and willing to learn.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba was also shared by both Islam and Christianity at different times. In 978, when the Muslims ruled Al Andalus,which was composed of Muslim Iberia, it was commissioned under Prince Abd al-Rahman I, who had just fled from Damascus as his family was just overthrown, this beginning his rule in Muslim Iberia. The very design of this mosque was meant to imitate the grandeur of the Great Mosque in Damascus; he even imported fruit trees from Damascus and encouraged similar architectural and agricultural practices.the Great Mosque of Cordoba is “celebrated for its harmony, balance, dramatic use of light and decoration, and its overall unity and aesthetic sensitivity, the monument belongs to an established functional type, the hypostyle mosque, but amounts to more than a mere variant of this type” (Khoury).  It is known for being among the first of the hypostyle hall mosque, along with its mihrab, horseshoe arches, and dome. They have a repeated pattern of two-tier roman columns along with the repetition of the roman arch. The repetitive form creates an organized space in which people can pray facing the correct direction (towards Mecca), which is the intended content, to promote pray and worship inside the mosque. The mihrab is a horseshoe arch prayer niche where the imam (the one leading) stands in prayer. The wall that it is on indicates which way Mecca is in relation to the way the building is faced, so that Muslims can face the Ka’ba when praying. This mihrab is special because of its lavish decorations and the unusually large size of the mihrab itself, being nearly the size of a small room as opposed to the size of an actual niche (Ecker). The form of the mihrab being fancier than necessary comes from the patron’s desire for it to resemble the mosque in Damascus, building it in perhaps even greater grandeur to convey to the people that this new reign would be as good, if not better than the current reign in Damascus.

Islamic calligraphy is also connected to form and content. Although there have been countless works of art for countless patrons, the evolution of Islamic calligraphy can clearly be seen as simple, easy to read and understand calligraphy written on parchment shifts to instances such as calligraphy on household objects. This appears more fanciful. It is not quite as clear as the earliest version of Islamic calligraphy, but legible nonetheless. The long strokes up the sides of the bowl make it more interesting to look at, which makes people more likely to read it. The fact that it is written on a bowl means that it is viewed frequently, whether on the dinner table or in a cabinet. “The place of calligraphy in Islamic art tradition is quite unique. In the Islamic lands, from the very beginning, writing and the Arabic language played a central role (the written text of the Qur’an was given by God himself and has to be revered and carefully kept) : it is for that reason that the development of calligraphic art has remained current until modern times. To effectively study Islamic calligraphy it is necessary to consider artistic principles and theories, religious veneration for writing, philological evidence, and cultural or political history” (Richard). This case is special, because it best illustrates content versus form. The words themselves are the content, and the way in which they are written is the form. The form still consists of the words themselves, but the creative element of the size and shapes of the letters makes all the difference in how this content is received. The purpose of the content is always to spread the word of Islam and promote education of the religion, but the evolution of the form uses varied mediums through which to express the content, changing the way it it received every time.

Lastly, the Ameins Cathedral is another great example of form affecting content. Again, the overall purpose of this cathedral is to be a place where people can worship, educate the masses about this religion, and make it look inviting and interesting so that people also have the desire to learn. The tympanum on the west portal is meant to depict Jesus as the central figure, looking over the final judgement surrounded by saints. This serves to illustrate a concept from Catholicism. The importance of the last judgement is one of the first things that people see as they enter. It is made to open up to the viewer, which might make it seem welcoming. There are multitude of other features that promote this content, but the most important would be the rose and stained glass windows inside the tracery on the inside of the structure. “At the level of the ave aisle windows, the addition of lateral chapels has led to the removal of the tracery – original windows remain only on the west sides of the transept arms” (Murray). These original windows depict scenes from the Bible, which are meant to educate the largely illiterate masses. The goal, the overall content was meant to bring people towards this religion, through education and community, which is addressed by the form that is found in these stained glass windows. Bible scenes literally surround anyone inside, so they are bound to learn something when they go inside the cathedral.

The concept of form affecting content is reasonable, but sometimes people fail to recognize just how powerful this influence is. The leaders who commission these works of art have they messages conveyed both explicitly and implicitly. It is explicit, as people generally know the objective of the patron. But it is also implicit, as the form of the art itself delivers messages that often go unrecognized as almost subliminal expressions of content.

Annotated Bibliography:

http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544446

• This is an article from the Met Museum, which is presented without specifying its author. It includes many images showing the statue from new angles. The article discusses Hatshepsut as a pharaoh as well as some of the specifics of the physical attributes of the sculpture.

Rodin, Auguste, and Seaton-Schmidt Anna. “To the Venus De Milo.” Art and Progress 3.2 (1911): 409-13. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Auguste Rodin and Anna Seaton-Schmidt discussing the history of the Venus de Milo and showing her in a variety of different angles. This helps to comment on her physical attributes as well as the condition of the statue itself – which is missing both arms as a result of the time period and battle that was going on at that time of its discovery.

PENTCHEVA, BISSERA V. “Hagia Sophia and Multisensory Aesthetics.” Gesta 50.2 (2011): 93-111. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Bissera Pentcheva. It discusses the effects of the aesthetics of the physical structure has on the people who visit it. This helps to comment on the current condition of the Hagia Sophia, as a museum left with mostly remnants of its days of being an Ottoman mosque.

Nuha N. N. Khoury. “The Meaning of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in the Tenth Century.” Muqarnas 13 (1996): 80-98. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Nuha N. N. Khoury, which examines the Great Mosque of Cordoba as a prominent artifact in the category of hypostyle hall mosques, which became the norm for mosques for years to come. Even today, mosques are built in the tradition of hypostyle halls.

Ecker, Heather. “The Great Mosque of Córdoba in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries.” Muqarnas 20 (2003): 113-41. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Heather Ecker that discusses the Great Mosque of Cordoba and its mihrab. She looks at the significance and purpose of the mihrab, and how it fits into the Great Mosque of Cordoba itself.

Richard, Francis. The Art Bulletin 89.2 (2007): 368-70. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Francis Richard. It discusses Islamic calligraphy and some of the changes it has undergone over the years. Since it is still prated today, several comparisons are made between the different time periods of its conception.

Murray, Stephen. “Looking for Robert De Luzarches: The Early Work at Amiens Cathedral.” Gesta 29.1 (1990): 111-31. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Stephen Murray. It discusses the construction of the original structure and talks about the additions and modifications made over the years.

Final Essay (with visuals)

Artists manipulate form to convey content dictated by leaders. 

The concept of commissioning art has been around for quite a while. When someone commissions a piece of art, they compensate an artist to create the art in the vision of the patron. The patron can request for it to look a certain way or deliver a specific message, but the work itself is ultimately in the hands of the artist. The “message” decreed by the patron will be referred to as the content, and means by which this content is illustrated will be referred to as form. The form clearly has influence on the content, and artists often display a high degree of sophistication and creativity when manipulating such form in the name of content.

For example, in a statue titled “Hatshepsut in a Devotional Attitude” (Unknown artist, Dynasty 18, 1479–1458 B.C.),

 

was commissioned by the Pharaoh Hatshepsut to commemorate her reign. Although she was a woman, she is shown with male pharaoh attributes, such as the beard and headdress. “For the ancient Egyptians, the ideal king was a young man in the prime of life. The physical reality was of less importance, so an old man, a baby, or even a woman who held the titles of pharaoh could be represented in this ideal form, as in this representation of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut. Although many of Hatshepsut’s statues depict her as the ideal king, the inscriptions always allude to her feminine gender, sometimes by using both masculine and feminine grammatical forms, sometimes by including her personal name, Hatshepsut, which means ‘foremost of noble women.'” (The Met). Also, the rigid stance she takes is typical of statues of royalty in these times, which further reinforces the view of Hatshepsut as Pharaoh. The content is meant to present her as a pharaoh, and only males were taken seriously as pharaohs, so adding male features contributes to the overall goal of Hatshepsut not only being taken seriously, but commemorating her as surpassing her male predecessors. Her Mortuary Temple was full of artifacts such as this, until her son had it all destroyed.

Next, the Venus de Milo was made by Alexander of Antioch.

This sculpture is meant to depict the Greek goddess Aphrodite (the common name, Venus the Milo, is the Roman translation of a sculpture made in Ancient Greek times), and was likely commissioned by city-state leaders, rather than an individual. She is rather well known today. She represents the Greek ideal, illustrating the Greek definition of beauty: balance, order, proportion, and harmony. The incredibly advanced proportion of her body and the cascading nature of the fabrics draped around her makes this piece special, not to mention that it was made in the year 101 BC. “Generally speaking, shadows are more forceful when used in moderation. The Venus de Milo in particular, owes her strength to this moderation. The effect which she produces is powerful because there is no jarring note to distract the attention. Approaching her step by step, one persuades oneself that she has been modeled by the continuous washing of the sea. Is not this what the ancients meant when they said that Aphrodite was created in the bosom of the waters?” (Rodin, Seaton-Schmidt). The use of shadow and contour makes for a greater degree of detail, which is important in her overall purpose. She was certainly a beholder of the Greek ideal, but she was also meant to glorify Aphrodite. There has been a dispute surrounding whether this was meant to present Aphrodite or other Greek mythological figures, but it can safely be said that her ideality is a way of glorifying figure that was worshipped in these times. The fact that this goddess is ideal makes people more willing to worship her.

In addition to the hand of the artist being easily seen in sculpture, it can also be seen in architecture. The Hagia Sophia, built and rebuilt over the years, is a great example.

It was first built in 415 as a Greek Orthodox church and the seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople. In the 1200s, for about 50 years, it was a Roman Catholic church as well. The Regale Ekklesia, as it was known in these days, was originally created by architects Anthemios of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos, who were most likely influenced by the mathematical theories of Archimedes. Originally, it had colored marble and intricate decorations on the floor and elsewhere were a result of Byzantine decree. As tine went on, the plans of this church were falling victim to earthquakes and such, causing it to be built and rebuilt a number of times. The mosaics on the sides of the walls were commissioned by different emperors. The images are vast, some with royal significance, some with religious significanc, and some with both. The different mosaic commissioned by different emperors cannot be seen, as they are covered by Islamic art. It was turned into a mosque in 1453 under Sultan Mehmet II. Over the next century, 4 minarets were built around the structure that carry religious significance. Ornate chandeliers commemorate Salesman’s conquest of Hungary, and the giant discs on the walls are Arabic calligraphy of the names of the 4 caliphs, the first four followers of Muhammad (pbuh). The dome was meant to symbolize the heavens. The base of the dome is ringed with windows, which allow light to flood the space, illuminating the works of art on the walls (Pentcheva). The placement and frequency of windows throughout the structure is an important attribute of form, which conveys content by allowing rays of light in a high frequency to illuminate the space in a controlled and deliberate manner. The overall content remains consistent through both of the religions that have inhabited this building: to promote religious education and present it in a way that people feel welcomed and willing to learn.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba was also shared by both Islam and Christianity at different times.

In 978, when the Muslims ruled Al Andalus,which was composed of Muslim Iberia, it was commissioned under Prince Abd al-Rahman I, who had just fled from Damascus as his family was just overthrown, this beginning his rule in Muslim Iberia. The very design of this mosque was meant to imitate the grandeur of the Great Mosque in Damascus; he even imported fruit trees from Damascus and encouraged similar architectural and agricultural practices.the Great Mosque of Cordoba is “celebrated for its harmony, balance, dramatic use of light and decoration, and its overall unity and aesthetic sensitivity, the monument belongs to an established functional type, the hypostyle mosque, but amounts to more than a mere variant of this type” (Khoury).  It is known for being among the first of the hypostyle hall mosque, along with its mihrab, horseshoe arches, and dome. They have a repeated pattern of two-tier roman columns along with the repetition of the roman arch. The repetitive form creates an organized space in which people can pray facing the correct direction (towards Mecca), which is the intended content, to promote pray and worship inside the mosque. The mihrab is a horseshoe arch prayer niche where the imam (the one leading) stands in prayer. The wall that it is on indicates which way Mecca is in relation to the way the building is faced, so that Muslims can face the Ka’ba when praying. This mihrab is special because of its lavish decorations and the unusually large size of the mihrab itself, being nearly the size of a small room as opposed to the size of an actual niche (Ecker). The form of the mihrab being fancier than necessary comes from the patron’s desire for it to resemble the mosque in Damascus, building it in perhaps even greater grandeur to convey to the people that this new reign would be as good, if not better than the current reign in Damascus.

Islamic calligraphy is also connected to form and content. Although there have been countless works of art for countless patrons, the evolution of Islamic calligraphy can clearly be seen as simple, easy to read and understand calligraphy written on parchment shifts to instances such as calligraphy on household objects.

This appears more fanciful. It is not quite as clear as the earliest version of Islamic calligraphy, but legible nonetheless. The long strokes up the sides of the bowl make it more interesting to look at, which makes people more likely to read it. The fact that it is written on a bowl means that it is viewed frequently, whether on the dinner table or in a cabinet. “The place of calligraphy in Islamic art tradition is quite unique. In the Islamic lands, from the very beginning, writing and the Arabic language played a central role (the written text of the Qur’an was given by God himself and has to be revered and carefully kept) : it is for that reason that the development of calligraphic art has remained current until modern times. To effectively study Islamic calligraphy it is necessary to consider artistic principles and theories, religious veneration for writing, philological evidence, and cultural or political history” (Richard). This case is special, because it best illustrates content versus form. The words themselves are the content, and the way in which they are written is the form. The form still consists of the words themselves, but the creative element of the size and shapes of the letters makes all the difference in how this content is received. The purpose of the content is always to spread the word of Islam and promote education of the religion, but the evolution of the form uses varied mediums through which to express the content, changing the way it it received every time.

Lastly, the Ameins Cathedral is another great example of form affecting content.

Again, the overall purpose of this cathedral is to be a place where people can worship, educate the masses about this religion, and make it look inviting and interesting so that people also have the desire to learn. The tympanum on the west portal is meant to depict Jesus as the central figure, looking over the final judgement surrounded by saints. This serves to illustrate a concept from Catholicism. The importance of the last judgement is one of the first things that people see as they enter. It is made to open up to the viewer, which might make it seem welcoming. There are multitude of other features that promote this content, but the most important would be the rose and stained glass windows inside the tracery on the inside of the structure. “At the level of the ave aisle windows, the addition of lateral chapels has led to the removal of the tracery – original windows remain only on the west sides of the transept arms” (Murray). These original windows depict scenes from the Bible, which are meant to educate the largely illiterate masses. The goal, the overall content was meant to bring people towards this religion, through education and community, which is addressed by the form that is found in these stained glass windows. Bible scenes literally surround anyone inside, so they are bound to learn something when they go inside the cathedral.

The concept of form affecting content is reasonable, but sometimes people fail to recognize just how powerful this influence is. The leaders who commission these works of art have they messages conveyed both explicitly and implicitly. It is explicit, as people generally know the objective of the patron. But it is also implicit, as the form of the art itself delivers messages that often go unrecognized as almost subliminal expressions of content.

Annotated Bibliography:

http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544446

• This is an article from the Met Museum, which is presented without specifying its author. It includes many images showing the statue from new angles. The article discusses Hatshepsut as a pharaoh as well as some of the specifics of the physical attributes of the sculpture.

Rodin, Auguste, and Seaton-Schmidt Anna. “To the Venus De Milo.” Art and Progress 3.2 (1911): 409-13. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Auguste Rodin and Anna Seaton-Schmidt discussing the history of the Venus de Milo and showing her in a variety of different angles. This helps to comment on her physical attributes as well as the condition of the statue itself – which is missing both arms as a result of the time period and battle that was going on at that time of its discovery.

PENTCHEVA, BISSERA V. “Hagia Sophia and Multisensory Aesthetics.” Gesta 50.2 (2011): 93-111. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Bissera Pentcheva. It discusses the effects of the aesthetics of the physical structure has on the people who visit it. This helps to comment on the current condition of the Hagia Sophia, as a museum left with mostly remnants of its days of being an Ottoman mosque.

Nuha N. N. Khoury. “The Meaning of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in the Tenth Century.” Muqarnas 13 (1996): 80-98. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Nuha N. N. Khoury, which examines the Great Mosque of Cordoba as a prominent artifact in the category of hypostyle hall mosques, which became the norm for mosques for years to come. Even today, mosques are built in the tradition of hypostyle halls.

Ecker, Heather. “The Great Mosque of Córdoba in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries.” Muqarnas 20 (2003): 113-41. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Heather Ecker that discusses the Great Mosque of Cordoba and its mihrab. She looks at the significance and purpose of the mihrab, and how it fits into the Great Mosque of Cordoba itself.

Richard, Francis. The Art Bulletin 89.2 (2007): 368-70. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Francis Richard. It discusses Islamic calligraphy and some of the changes it has undergone over the years. Since it is still prated today, several comparisons are made between the different time periods of its conception.

Murray, Stephen. “Looking for Robert De Luzarches: The Early Work at Amiens Cathedral.” Gesta 29.1 (1990): 111-31. Web.

• This is an academic journal by Stephen Murray. It discusses the construction of the original structure and talks about the additions and modifications made over the years.

Final Journal Portfolio

This Western Civilization class comes to a close. Through this class, I’ve been able to research a variety of intriguing topics and have often found some very interesting pieces of information. They have all contributed to what I’ve learned throughout the class. I’d like to discuss some of my favorite posts on this blog:

Firstly, I’ll discuss the Murals of Çatalhöyük. After the introductory post, this was the first academic blog post made on this page for this class! Information and images were largely pulled from academic/university websites and a lecture from the amazing Professor Lisa Lane. I discussed some of the main theories regarding what this center was meant far, as well as the significance of the murals themselves and how their relevance to the function of the building itself. By this time, the theme of aesthetic and function was not developed, but it certainly contains the beginnings of this theme, as it examines how the murals (aesthetic of the center) contributes to the overall purpose. The fact that this particular historical artifact/place was one of the first that was studied in this class played a significant role in guiding me toward the idea of looking at the different components involved in giving things their purpose. This led me to some very interesting research. So towards the beginning of the class, I learned about this particular artifact was well as the beginnings of some research techniques. For this, other than the lecture I found sources from websites, which was a good start.

Next, The Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut. Here, I looked at one of the greatest rulers Ancient Egypt had ever seen. Through this post, I got to learn about male versus female pharaohs, and how females were never really considered pharaohs, but were to assume the roles of wife or mother, but never a position of power, which is why female pharaohs were so rare. I particularly enjoyed learning about what separated Hatshepsut from the rest of the female pharaohs, and I found that even in artwork, she commissioned herself to display some typical male (sometimes, the shoulders) and typical pharaoh (headdress and beard) characteristics. During this post, I got to explore societal norma and gender roles in Ancient Egyptian times, which was certainly a pleasure. Connecting this to the theme, the physical aspects of how she was portrayed affected the message that she meant to send out, which was for people to take her as seriously, if not more, than a male pharaoh.

In the Venus de Milo, which is also known as the Aphrodite of Melos, I was able to research the mystery of her missing limbs, to find a rather fascinating history surrounding this sculpture. Studying the Venus de Milo gave me insight into the religious beliefs, social norms, and this culture’s definition of beauty. What I found most fascinating when studying her was the stark differences in beauty’s definition from this culture to ours. Our culture sees beauty as a preference. If you see something as beautiful, it automatically becomes a preference. However, in these times, beauty had specific characteristics. If something had the characteristics of balance, order, proportion, and harmony, then it was considered beautiful. Preference had nothing to do with beauty. Beauty was simply a quality. Something had it, or it didn’t. It did not affect anyone’s preferences, which I think is, ironically, a novel concept. Rather, something that people have forgotten. I can think of some interesting pros and cons to maintaining this mentality in this day and age.

The Hagia Sophia was also a joy to learn about. It has such a rich and diverse history, spanning changes in different cultures, religions, and leaders who controlled the changes. It went from being a church, to a mosque, then a museum celebrating its history. It is rare to see multiple major religions sharing the same space for worship, even when they are ages apart. Learning about this monument in particular allowed me to examine the changes made to the physical structure corresponding to the era, such as the significance of the covered-over murals the the four large circles for the four caliphs.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba also has a rich history that I was able to research through these blog posts. It tells there story of when Islam spread in Spain, which is often a forgotten part of European history (aside from my class, which spent a great deal of time looking at this). It gives insight into the functional components of the structure (hypostyle halls, minarets, etc.) while also considering why they were made the way they were made.

Islamic Calligraphy was also a fascinating subject to look at. I got to learn about the evolution of Arabic script. It began with simple and easy to understand, and shifted towards adapting more complex, even fancy, fonts and mediums on which it was communicated, which tells us a great deal about the function of this beautiful language.

Lastly, the Arnolfini Portrait was one of my favorites because of the rise of symbolism in this time, which allowed me to explore what the different symbols meant and why placement matters. This is special to me because I enjoy looking at things like symbolism in art, and I think it’s a powerful thing. In more recent art, some artists will take these well known symbols (many of which only came about because go this painting) and distort then to mean something else while still referencing the classical past.

Overall, I’ve had a marvelous time researching all of these topics. I was blessed with the option of choosing mown topics, which made it that much more interesting and appealing. Throughout the class, I’ve learned a great deal of how to research, the different means of researching, where to find the majority of my secondary sources (i.e jstore), as well as finding a way to maintain my writing skills, which would have otherwise rotted in the summertime. The history that I’ve had the opportunity to study as well as the free reign I’ve been given as far as research as made this class not only efficient and beneficial, but also very enjoyable.

David

Continuing on with the Renaissance! Michelangelo Buonarotti’s David is easily one of the most recognized pieces of sculpture. Michelangelo was only 26 years of age when he sculpted the David between 1502-1504. I’ll discuss the story of its construction, details about the physical sculpture, how this affected Renaissance society and culture, while recalling the aesthetic/function theme.

As I mentioned earlier, this was made by a 26 year old Michelangelo. Before this, his only major commission was the Pieta (which was no small feat, to be certain). This means that he was not terribly well known at this point, but he definitely became famous after this piece was presented three years later. He was commissioned by the Arte della Lana (Guild of Wool Merchant) and the city government of Florence. Originally, this was meant to be seen from very high up, as the original plan was to place it atop “one of the buttresses surrounding the tribunal of the Santa Maria del Fiori” (Keizer). However, once people witnessed the final sculpture, they realized that it was far too precious and beautiful to not place it somewhere that people could properly marvel at it from a shorter range. David stands at about 17 feet tall, so this is literally a larger than life sculpture. People became entranced by this sculpture partly because of this; not only was it larger than life, but it still retained its life-like features while simultaneously being a giant. Normally, it is thought that something can be one or the other, but this was the first to be both.

Another interesting things about the sculpture is the marble that was used to sculpt it. The marble is called Carrara marble, which had a limited supply and could only be found in certain mountain ranges. This was sone of the few blocks. However, Michelangelo did not work on a brand mew block of Carrara marble. This one in particular was already used, as multiple other artists began work on it but never got closer to finishing. Therefore, this would be considered a damaged piece of Carrara marble. However, since it was so expensive and precious, someone needed to make use of it, it would not be acceptable to simply throw it away. So, Michelangelo took on the challenge and not only made something usable, but perhaps one of the most beautiful pieces of sculpture known to man. Michelangelo believed that when  carving, he was releasing the figure from the statue, as though he was pulling the figure out from the marble. (Parks)

Physically, the Davi is unlike any other. Michelangelo, in a way, took what the greeks did and improved upon it. Although the work of the Ancient Greeks was impressive to say the least, the David goes beyond the fluidity of the folds of clothing draped over nude gods and goddesses and their nearly perfect anatomical proportions. In the David, Michelangelo references the classical past through the fact that David is sculpted in the nude, his apparent and flawless contrapposto stance, which was a commonality in Ancient Greek times. This is a perfect example of High Renaissance art because of these references tot he classical past as well as its religious and political significance.

The David’s connection to religion is quite widely known. In Christianity, David was a young man who took on the giant Goliath. Nobody thought he had a chance, as he was small, had no armor, and his only weapon was a rock and a slingshot. The story goes that he defeated Goliath with this rock and slingshot and of course, the help of God. He was the underdog who succeeded only with divine intervention.

Throughout history, it is common to see the David sculpted. The same figure has been sculpted time and time again by different artists in different time periods. Preceding Michelangelo. David was usually sculpted post-battle, victorious. He is usually depicted with his weapon in hand, and Goliath’s head at his feet. His expression is typically one of confidence, for he just defeated the giant Goliath with the help of God. What’s different about Michelangelo’s David is that he is depicted pre-battle. The fight between David and Goliath has not yet transpired, which changes the whole mood of the sculpture and the figure itself. Here, David again holds his weapon in hand, but Goliath’s head is nowhere to be found. The expression is completely different, his brow is furrowed and we can almost see the anticipation in his eyes. He has yet to face his opponent. He is unsure of how it will turn out. We may ask ourselves, why did Michelangelo break from tradition and sculpt him at this stage? Michelangelo was known to be fiercely Catholic and fiercely Florentine, meaning that he carries great pride in being from Florence. AT this time, Italy was divided into any city states, and Florence was one of them. Michelangelo chose this stage to use David as an allegory for Florence. Florence is about to battle (not literally, just a battle for becoming the most advanced and generally beating out the other city states at anything they could) and wanted to give the world a message. Although they are up against much more well established and large states, they not only have the capacity to win, but they WILL win with the help of God. For this reason, the David was placed outside of the city hall, facing towards the other states, declaring his lack of fear in their presence. The Medici Family had overwhelming wealth and control in these times, so often it was thought of as anti Medici sentiment, displaying their will to rise above the control and influence of the Medici.

Society as a whole in this time seemed to gain national pride as well as awe from this sculpture, which aided in making Florence the High Renaissance epitome that many strived towards. The aesthetic, the fact that he stands 17 feet tall and has anatomical and proportional perfection, makes him a larger than life figure to revere as part of what made Florence so great – the idea that a Florentine made this, one of their own. This aligned with he function of amassing confidence and ushering a n ew age of art. Directly the function was for Michelangelo to “wow” the commissioners, which he most certainly did.

References:

Keizer, Joost. “Giuliano Salviati, Michelangelo and the ‘David'” The Burlington Magazine150.1267 (2008): 664-68. Web.

Parks, N. Randolph. “The Placement of Michelangelo’s David: A Review of the Documents.” The Art Bulletin 57.4 (1975): 560-70. Web.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/high-ren-florence-rome/michelangelo/v/michelangelo-david-marble-1501-04-galleria-dell-accademia-florence

 

 

Mona Lisa

Now we enter the Italian Renaissance. This is perhaps one of the most famous and recognized paintings of all time. Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa 1503-1506. I’ll discuss the story behind this painting and what makes it so special.

It is said that Mona Lisa is called by this name because the woman in the painting was called Lisa, and Mona comes from Monna, which is a contraction for “mia donna” which means “my lady” in Italian. Most people agree that this is a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, which was commissioned by her husband, Francesco del Giocondo, a wealthy merchant. Clearly, Leonardo never returned it to the husband (Sassoon). However, some seem to think that this finished product does not actually represent Lisa Gherardini, but another patroness of the arts:

“Carlo Vecce, author of a recent biography of Leonardo, has claimed that ‘Lisa’ was Isabella Gualanda. His theory is that Leonardo started the portrait of Lisa Gherardini in 1504, worked on it for four years but never finished it – as Vasari, Leonardo’s near-contemporary, had claimed. When Leonardo was in Rome (1513-16), as part of the entourage of Giuliano de’ Medici, he was asked to paint the portrait of Isabella Gualanda, a Neapolitan lady. Leonardo had to agree and simply recycled the unfinished portrait he had taken with him, providing it with the features of Isabella” (Sassoon).

I’ve more commonly heard of the first theory, but I suppose no one can know for sure. If it is indeed Lisa Gherardini (or not), there are a few things to note:

In this time, it was customary to document the reason for a portrait somewhere within the portrait itself. For example, the portrait itself would need to include the reason that this patron is worthy of a portrait, such as how they became wealthy enough or important to afford one, which would include a medal of some sort or the industry from which they became wealthy. For this portrait, there is no such reason. Some have thought that there might be horses present in the background, as her family was known for horses being associated with their wealth. Also, the terrain appears to change is an almost unnatural way, until the jar-looking base things are noticed in the bottom corners. This actually indicated that she is sitting on a balcony and that those jar things are actually the cylindrical bases of columns, between which she is painted.

Her smile is the major element that makes it so special, and has been a hot topic for debate and theory over the last century and a half (Khan Academy). There are a multitude of ideas for what this elusive smile means. One theory comes from tooth pains.

“The trend [of deciphering her smile] seems to have started in 1955, when a Genoa daily reported that a local dentist had attributed Mona Lisa’s expression to a toothache, while an equally mysterious ‘London critic’ had discovered she was deaf. Her enigmatic expression was due to the effort of trying to hear what Leonardo was telling her.” (Sassoon)

Also, in 1959, a respected Leonardian Dr, Kenneth D, Kelle suspected that she was pregnant. “He wrote that anyone who has observed a pregnant woman sit down and turn to one side would realize it. An enlargement of the thyroid had caused the ‘almost puffy’ neck. He had thus solved the mystery of the smile. Far from being mocking or enigmatic, it signaled the placid satisfaction of pregnancy. The conclusion was that ‘Leonardo created his ideal picture of motherhood” (Sassoon).

Speaking of mothers, Sigmund Freud also had some ideas about this painting. He thought that Mona Lisa’s smile reflected that of Leonardo’s mother, classifying him as having an Oedipus complex. This idea was again replicated by a “Danish doctor, Johan Schioldann Nielsen, who also supplied an article, ‘The enigmatic smile of Mona Lisa’, he had published in the same Danish medical journal. Dr Nielsen, of the Department of Psychiatry at Odense University Hospital, established that Leonardo was a neurotic who had found his mother’s smile in Mona Lisa’s enigmatic look” (Sassoon).

As I’m sure there are a variety of additional theories regarding Mona Lisa’s smile, these are the main few. People generally lean away from Freud’s idea, and many have come to accept that the answer to this mystery is that she was pregnant. However, many are also still not sure what to believe.

Clearly, Leonardo knew what he was doing, as we can see perfect sfumato on Mona Lisa’s skin. He made the smile the way it is and didn’t include the reason for the portrait purposefully. This was the time of Humanism, which focused on humans and their interactions and relationships and pretty much every part of being a human. Because of this humanist trend that can be seen at this time, this leads to the indication that Leonardo constructed it in such a manner as so provoke the very reaction it has been received with. It was meant to bring about discussion. In this case, Leonardo uses the smile to cause people to discuss for centuries to come.

However, like I mentioned earlier, this painting was not anywhere near the fame it has achieved today. It was a much lesser known work 150 years ago, which means that either Leonardo’s intent did not take place until much much later, or that it was not meant for public consumption in the first place, which tells us that the fact that the private nature of this commissioned limits its impact on society, and that this piece happened to be an exception because people started getting obsessed with it centuries after it was produced. The latter certainly seems to be the case, the way I see it.

References:

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/high-ren-florence-rome/leonardo-da-vinci/v/celebrity-art-leonardo-s-mona-lisa

• This is a video discussing some of the visual elements of the painting, as well as discussing some possible meanings of the famous Mona Lisa smile.

Sassoon, Donald. “”Mona Lisa”: The Best-Known Girl in the Whole Wide World.” History Workshop Journal 51 (2001): 1-18. Web.

• This is an article from the History Workshop Journal, which addresses a variety of topics regarding Leonardo’s Mona Lisa. The article discusses the origins of the name, as well as some of the theories that people have about Mona Lisa’s smile. He also discusses different perspectives on who is being depicted in this painting. The widespread influence of this painting is also addressed, and its popularity and reasons for achieving this status are discussed in greater detail.

The Arnolfini Portrait

This is easily one of the most famous portraits in existence! It goes by the name of the Arnolfini Portrait painted by Early Netherlandish painter Jan van Eyck in 1434. What makes this portrait so special to warrant the title of perhaps the most famous? Well, the mathematical perspective in itself used to achieve such accuracy, detail, and depth is a topic of discussion all on it’s own; and as it is indeed known for the mathematical perspective, it is also widely known for its preliminary use of symbolism,setting the groundwork for many portraits and symbols to come. Countless paintings coming up even to modern times reference the symbols used here to replicate or comment on them. First, I’ll discuss the mathematical perspective,then we’ll move onto the symbols. Lastly, I’ll address the aesthetic/function theme.

It was believed by some that van Eyck used a convex mirror in order to gain the advantage on creating these figures with such accurate lighting, as to even slightly allow light to bounce off of rounded surfaces in the painting to make them look that much more authentic. However, others hold that van Eyck did not use such a mirror for the Arnolfini Portrait, or any of his other works for that matter. According to David L. Carleton of the Art Bulletin,

“the tendency of Jan’s figures to move forward within the Arnolfini Portrait has given them a heightened presence, subtle in comparison to the figure in his Madonna in the Church, but nevertheless stemming from a similar desire to cause the subjects of the composition to dominate their surroundings. The desire to heighten the presence of the two figures within the room may also explain the way in which Jan painted their reflections in the mirror on the rear wall.” (Carleton)

On the rear wall, a couple is reflected onto the mirror, indicating that they are the viewers of this scene, seeing as we cannot see them anywhere else in the painting in the foreground, mid ground, or background other than subtly reflected in the mirror:

“Instead of showing the couple in the front of the room, he painted their reflection in such a way as to place them several feet closer to the rear wall than they are in the primary image, and between the chest and the bed. The mirror hanging within the reconstruction shows how the reflection of the couple would have appeared had they been painted in their correct position. Consequently, Jan achieved a heightened presence for his reflected figures as well as for the full-length figures in the room, by means of incorrect optical placement.” (Carleton)

Incorrect optical placement refers to changing reality in order to imitate reality. Realistically, the placement of some of the objects/figures would actually be different, but van Eyck alters them in order for our eyes to see it as how we would expect reality to look like as opposed to how it would actually look. This tells us that he clearly had a very sophisticated understanding of light and depth, to be able to manipulate these elements in order to imitate reality while altering it on the canvas (in this case, oak wood panel).

Symbols:

The mirror on the back of the wall as pictured above: This gives the viewer two points of view from one vantage point, allowing them to see the mirror from their point of view, as well as the point of view of the couple that appears to have just entered or exited the bedchamber.

The woman’s green dress: Many people often take the way she holds her dress up as an indicator that she is with child, when really, the way she holds up her dress is meant to show us, the viewer, that she is rich and has more than she needs. The lifting of the dress allows her to show off the excessive folds and rich fabric that this dress is made of.

The man’s coat: Similar purpose. The coat is clearly made out of very expensive leathers and furs, which is another indicator of this couple’s wealth. The coast is also shows to have special feathering on it for added richness. The fact that van Eyck used oil paints makes the final image more rich in color, which is why it appealed to the Bourgeoise of this time, including the Arnolfinis, to highlight their monetary successes even on the scale of a brushstroke.

The couple reflected in the mirror standing in the viewer’s point of view: Some have debated that the artist is depicted as on half of this couple (Dimier), while others disagree. According to George Hill of the Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs,

“Sir,-Monsieur Dimier’s assertion that the natural translation of the inscription on the National Gallery picture, which I still venture to describe as the portrait of John Arnolfini and his wife, must be ” this man was John van Eyck,” is, to say the least, surprising. I venture to maintain, on the contrary, that the obvious and only rendering, in accordance with the usage of Latin prose, is the traditional one, and that Monsieur Dimier will have to produce analogies to the inversion which he supports before he can convince Latinists. This appears to me to be elementary; nevertheless I have taken the opportunity of consulting two friends whose opinion on such a point of scholarship is beyond question ; they were unaware of the point at issue, but independently confirmed the traditional rendering. One of them pointed out, very pertinently, that if the sentence were meant to identify the portrait the present and not the past tense would be required.” (Hill)

The mirror itself: The tiny, detailed images around the ornate mirror are meant to depict the life of Jesus as well as the story of his death. This may serve as a reminder to viewers about their mortality, that since Jesus had to face it, so will everyone else. The curvature of the mirror, let alone the curvature of each individual circular image looks as though the light bounces off of it, creating depth using shading around the edges in the correct places.

Hands: The way the man’s right hand is posed is very telling. This is meant to mimic the way Jesus poses his hand in benediction in countless works before this. This is special, because here we see the artist referencing previous artworks of a different figure and applying the same pose here, turning it into a symbol of the thing it is referencing. We understand that he is not meant to look like Jesus, but he is meant to have the same quality of benediction. The way that he and his wife are holding hands indicates that they are married (and have just been married recently).

Sandals: We can clearly see the shoes kicked off and lying on the ground. This symbol becomes very prominent later on, especially in modern art. The shoes being kicked off means that this couple is about to consummate their marriage. In the future, this classic symbol is changed to symbolize illicit love in a different. This combined with the future usage of this symbol in modern art makes this a very important symbol.

Dog: The dog on the ground at the woman’s feet is a symbol of fidelity. This tells us that the couple (or at least, the woman) has been/will be faithful to the marriage. This symbol is also used time and time again in the future, it’s meaning altered to different paintings.

Fruit: Some say that the fruit on the table and by the window symbolize the fruitfulness of their home and wealth, as well as their marriage.

Positioning: The fact that the woman is standing next to the bed suggests that this painting makes her place out to be in the home and domestic. The man is standing near the window, which suggests that the painting makes his place out to be outside, probably generating income,being the breadwinner.

Chandelier/Candelabra: Only one flame is lit within all the candles, which recalls previous symbolism for candles being lit, which suggests the presence of the holy spirit watching over them. This is also another opportunity for van Eyck to show off his sophistication when it comes to lighting and shading of the bronze of the chandelier.

Beads: In this time, the beads were a symbol of female piety, and also represented a common gift from a man to his wife. Others say that van Eyck was advertising for a local industry without he use of adding these beads and the brush on the end.

Signature: Below the chandelier and above the mirror is a signature of sorts. Some say that it is a signature meant to officiate the marriage between these who people, but others say that since the signature reads, “Johannes van Eyck was here” it is the artist making himself present in the painting.

I believe this covers most of the symbols, my apologies if any have been left out.

Onto the aesthetic – this is meant to look very real in terms of perspective, lighting, and shading. The artist inserts a variety of symbols, some of which are already well known at the time, and others that he is introducing. The function was simply a commission from the man as a gift for his wife for their marriage, therefore it was to originally intended for public consumption.

Therefore, in this case, aesthetic and function do not align quite as closely as they would in something like the Amiens Cathedral. In some ways, their purposes are similar in that the portrait brings to light the wealth of this family, as well as highlights positive attributes. Functionally, this was made specifically for them. The aesthetic specifically targeting their qualities is for the purpose of this portrait being made of them and for them, so of course it would end up being extremely flattering. However, there is no other functional reason that this piece looks the wait does. It was commissioned to flatter the patrons and bring out their positive attributes, but otherwise they are not correlated.

Why is it that sometimes aesthetic and function align and other times it does not? Here, there is still a very strong influence of Christianity over society, but the Dutch Republic is going through it’s golden age in terms of finances, so it is now becoming more important to document wealth in art than simply the religious aspects of life. Because this family is rich, they can afford to have it commissioned however they see fit, catering only to their whims and not society as a whole, since this was intended for private consumption. Private commissions and individual wealth are among the components allowing aesthetic and function to differ.

Bibliography:

Carleton, David L. “A Mathematical Analysis of the Perspective of the Arnolfini Portrait and Other Similar Interior Scenes by Jan Van Eyck.” The Art Bulletin 64.1 (1982): 118-24. Web.

Hill, George. “Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait.” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs65.379 (1934): 189. Web.

Dimier, L. “Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait.” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs65.378 (1934): 135. Web.

(http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/pdf/865954.pdf)

Amiens Cathedral

Wow, how beautiful and grand looking! There are actually quite a few interesting things about this cathedral apart from how amazing it looks. Some of these things even contribute to create a similar effect!

Let’s begin with the history: This Cathedral was constructed by 1270 by Robert of Luzarches, and Thomas and Regnault de Cormont. The period in which this was made is known as the French Gothic, making this a perfect example of French Gothic architecture. Seeing as the group breaking was in 1220, it took 50 years to build this vast cathedral.

As we look at the various components, we’ll also be exploring the purposes of aesthetic and function and how they fit together for this particular pice of architecture.

The Exterior:

 

One of the chief elements of architecture that this structure is known for is its tympanum on the west central portal:

A tympanum is meant to depict Jesus as the central figure, looking over the final judgement surrounded by saints. The depth and detail of this huge tympanum is part of what makes it so widely known.

The Beau Dieu Trumeau:

This translates to “Good God” in French. This piece of art has grown famous on its own, and it happens to be attached as the trumeau of the Amiens Cathedral.

The Rose Window (the outside view of it is referred to as the tracery):

This is perhaps the most well known element of the Amiens Cathedral. Most people who know it, know it for its use of the rose window. The largest one in the top center of the facade. This is the exterior view, but we’ll also look at the interior, which is composed of stained glass, allowing light to pass through in a variety of colors, casting patterns on the inside of the cathedral. The rose window has a diameter of 43 feet. An additional spire was also combined with the architecture later on after the full construction of the main cathedral was complete.

The Flying Buttresses

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According to the authors of “The Openwork Flying Buttresses of Amiens Cathedral: “Postmodern Gothic” and the Limits of Structural Rationalism,” the two tiers are responsible for different functions, which is affected by the flying buttresses in the top tier,

“The inadequacy of this deterministic interpretive matrix stands revealed in the building history of Amiens cathedral, where the highly refined and successful structural system of the nave appears to have been willfully abandoned in the later transept and choir in favor of a problematical scheme based upon the openwork flying buttress, an improbable structural element in which the buttress itself is dissolved into a tracery screen. The adoption of the openwork flying buttress at Amiens deserves comment, especially because the nave of the cathedral has been cited, with good reason, as a paragon of perfected Gothic structural design. Recent studies have shown that even the pinnacles of the Amiens nave play a structural role, confirming one of the more outlandish-sounding claims of nineteenth-century structural rationalism.6 The overall structural system of the Amiens nave, with two tiers of flying buttresses, follows the “classic” example of Soissons, Longpont, and Reims. As Viollet-le-Duc and other early scholars realized, these two tiers perform different functions: the lower balances the thrust of the nave vaults; the upper helps to stabilize the nave wall while its grooved upper surface serves as an aqueduct to evacuate rainwater.7 In addition, it has been observed that the upper tier of flyers plays an important role in resisting the substantial wind forces on the nave roof.8 That this structural system continues to function after nearly eight centuries is testimony to the skill and experience of its designers, Robert de Luzarches and Thomas de Cormont.” (Robert, Robert, Stephen)

There are a multitude of other prominent features on the outside of the cathedral, but these are amongst the most well known and historically important.

The Interior:

This is the grand organ that is housed on the inside of the Amiens Cathedral. This was actually later added into the structure in 1549.

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According to Stephen Murray of Columbia University, the nave and choir pictured above was constructed in different phases, leading to the suggestion that Robert de Luzarches, the architect, may have been responsible for the nave, but not the upper choir,

“To be sure, the upper nave and choir were, indeed, constructed in separate phases, the upper nave in the 1230s and the upper choir in the 1240s to 1260s (Figs. 4 and 5). To find the work of Robert de Luzarches, however, and to fix the chronology of the early construction, we must concentrate on the lower walls. Some sources suggest that Robert may have died soon after the founding bishop (Evrard died in 1222) and, therefore, we cannot assume that he remained master for a prolonged period.” (Murray)

The Rose and Stained Glass Windows:

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The cathedral is also very well known for its stained glass windows and its rose window. The stained glass also has images inscribed onto them, which serve as a tool for education in the church. At the tine of the construction of this cathedral, illiteracy was very high, and images such as these were the primary way that people go their religious education. The images in these stained glass windows consistently represent religious events from the bible. The high volume of surface space allows for a vast number of depictions, increasing the amount of religious education a person can get by entering the cathedral.

Again, there are various other aspects of the cathedral on its interior that are at the very least noteworthy, but I must move onto aesthetic and function.

Here, we can see a clear connection between aesthetic and function in the stained glass windows/rose window. The aesthetic: a numerous amount of panels and space for illustrations, distinct images in each panel, and staining the glass for it to have multiple colors when light shines through them. The function: to pass on as much religious education as possible on the masses, and perhaps the colors make the content more interesting to look at, further driving people to pay attention to what is on the walls/stained glass windows. We can see that the purposes of both the aesthetic and function align closely, working together to achieve the same goal of teaching Christianity.

Same with the organ; it obviously serves a religious function, but the grandness of the aesthetic also serves to glorify their reason for coming to the cathedral, to learn about their religion.

The Beau Dieu trumeau and the tympanum also depict religious figures and events, which correspond with the same logic of the organ – religious function, and psychological aesthetic, meant to elicit certain responses from people in terms of paying attention and absorbing the information around them.

However, we know that this cannot always be the case – aesthetic and function aligning. So what are the conditions under which this is possible?

For one, when religion is involved, communicating information via stories in art within architecture indicates the vast and extensive presence of religion (in this case, Christianity) in society as a whole. In today’s world, religion is not nearly as ingrained and involved in society’s everyday life as it was in the gothic era. Due to the church’s far-reaching control over society at the time, aesthetic was able to be manipulated to convey a message, enhancing the functional aspects of the function of the object/place itself.

Bibliography:

1. Murray, Stephen. “Looking for Robert De Luzarches: The Early Work at Amiens Cathedral.” G29.1 (1990): 111-31. Web.
2.        The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Amiens Cathedral, Encyclopedia Brittanica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Amiens-Cathedral
3. Bork, Robert, Mark Robert, and Murray Stephen. “The Openwork Flying Buttresses of Amiens Cathedral: “Postmodern Gothic” and the Limits of Structural Rationalism.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 56.4 (1997): 478-93. http://www.jstor.org.prox.miracosta.edu/stable/pdf/991315.pdf?_=1469561287398

Islamic Calligraphy

Islamic Calligraphy is nearly as old as Islam itself. While today’s designs are sophisticated and innovative, they all began in the 11th century, when the designs were more basic, but still beautiful. Here is an example of modern Islamic calligraphy:

Many modern renditions are even made in the shapes of animals or objects like ships, or even people.

Today I’ll be discussing very early forms of Islamic calligraphy. The earliest form is known as the Kufic category of Islamic calligraphy. Then, comes the Naskh, followed by regional varieties and modern renditions of Islamic calligraphy.

The Kufic artwork spanned between the 11th century and the 13th century. In archaic Kufic Arabic, there were 13 characters (as opposed to the 28 letters today). Here is an example of Kufic script:

This is from the Quran, from the 9th century. It is known to be from the Abbasid period, from the Abbasid Caliphate, who was the third caliphate (from the youngest of Muhammad PBUH’s uncles). Recalling from the previous post about the Great Mosque of Cordoba, the Abbasid period began when the Muslim Empire was taken from the Umayyads by the calipphates in 750. This ended the first dynasty ruled by the Umayyads, since they had to escape to Cordoba from Damascus.

By the 10th century, people began expanding their medium from simply paper to things like bowls, exemplified here:

Between the 9th and 10th century, there is a significant, observable difference in the way this calligraphy is written and carried out. As time progressed, the uses of different mediums expanded as well. Also, the script itself looks different. In the 9th century example,  the letters looks proportional and consistent, looking overall aesthetically ordered. In the 10th century bowl, the script is exaggerated to look longer and shorter in different places, likely to emphasize this size difference as opposed to the 9th century example where there is a consistent medium size to the script. This change suggests that there is a shift towards the artistic.

The aesthetic purpose of the 9th century example is to likely to look neat and easy to read and understand. It’s functional purpose is similar, in the sense that it is clearly centered on the page so that the eye is drawn to the script and only the script, further promoting ease and understanding.

The aesthetic purpose of the 10th century example is likely for it to look artistic and unusual. The fact that it is not the usual script that people are used to indicates that the artist may have wanted to grab people’s attention, forcing them to put more effort into reading and understanding what is being written. The functional purpose lies in it’s medium. Since these designs were made on a bowl, there are two possibilities: either people used this to eat in, or it was kept in a china cabinet – equivalent of the time. In the case it being kept in a china cabinet and not being used, which seems more likely, this was functionally a piece of art, meant to consume effort in it’s understanding. If it was used to eat in, which seems less likely since this commission was most likely expensive to the patron, so they probably did not use it to eat in or risk it breaking or wearing down in any other way than keeping it in a china cabinet, then it was simply decoration, or a religious reminder to wealthy people at mealtime.

According to Francis Richard’s review of Sheila S. Blair’s “Islamic Calligraphy of The Art Bulletin, “The place of calligraphy in Islamic art tradition is quite unique. In the Islamic lands, from the very beginning, writing and the Arabic language played a central role (the written text of the Qur’an was given by God himself and has to be revered and carefully kept) : it is for that reason that the development of calligraphic art has remained current until modern times. To effectively study Islamic calligraphy it is necessary to consider artistic principles and theories, religious veneration for writing, philological evidence, and cultural or political history” (Richard). There was clearly a religious veneration for writing in this culture, which survived the tests of time and is still the case today. This is likely because of the ban on imagery and depictions of religious figures or events from the religion itself. Calligraphy has been an integral part  of expression in this religion, serving as art and as a form of education and religious reminders. As time progresses, it takes on more of an artistic role than anything else, but when it first began, it’s purposes of aesthetic and function were similar enough to complement one another in enforcing the same goal: understanding the faith.

References:

Richard, Francis. The Art Bulletin 89.2 (2007): 368-70. Web.

http://calligraphyqalam.com/styles/index.html

http://www.sakkal.com/ArtArabicCalligraphy.html

http://international.loc.gov/intldl/apochtml/apocfragments.html

The Great Mosque of Cordoba

This is the Great Mosque of Cordoba, in Andalusia, Spain. At another point in history, it was known as the Cathedral of Cordoba. Locally, people call it the Mezquita-Cathedral.

While people don’t usually immediately think of Spain when they think Muslims, there is actually a deep Islamic history there.  At the time that this was built, in 987, the Muslims ruled Al Andalus,which was composed of Muslim Iberia, which included most of Spain ad Portugal, as well as a small bit of southern France. It is believed to be one of the oldest structures from this time.

Before this land was a mosque, there was a roman temple for Janus, then a church after 572 when it was taken over by Christian forces. This mosque was built under Prince Abd al-Rahman I. His family, the Umayyad royalty, have been the monarchs of the the first Muslim Dynasty, which lasted from 661 to 750. Their headquarters were in Damascus, from where they had just bee overthrown. Because of this, they escaped here, where they gained control of nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula. The very design of this mosque was meant to imitate the grandeur of the Great Mosque in Damascus; he even imported fruit trees from Damascus and encouraged similar architectural and agricultural practices.

According to Nuha N. N. Khoury, the Great Mosque of Cordoba is “celebrated for its harmony, balance, dramatic use of light and decoration, and its overall unity and aesthetic sensitivity, the monument belongs to an established functional type, the hypostyle mosque, but amounts to more than a mere variant of this type” (Khoury).  It is known for being among the first of the hypostyle hall mosque, along with its mihrab, horseshoe arches, and dome.

What is a hypostyle hall? Hypostyle literally means filled with columns, which is quite an accurate description in my opinion.

This is the area in which prayers occur. They all have a repeated pattern of two-tier roman columns along with the repetition of the roman arch. The elaborate barrel vault ceilings are also one of it’s defining characteristics.

Now, the mihrab – a mihrab is a horseshoe arch prayer niche where the imam (the one leading) likely stands in prayer. The wall that it is on indicates which way Mecca is in relation to the way the building is faced, so that Muslims can face the Ka’ba when praying. This mihrab is special because of its lavish decorations and the unusually large size of the mihrab itself, being nearly the size of a small room as opposed tot he size of an actual niche. (Ecker)

Directly above the mihrab is the dome, which is known to be especially beautiful. It has a complex crossing of the rib patters to create a symmetrical geometric shape, which is very common and associated with Islamic art. This ceiling is covered by decorative mosaics including gold mosaics. These patters also take repetitive geometric shapes, which enhance its traditional look. Personally, the shapes and sizes of the levels of the dome remind me to Brunelleschi’s Il Duomo (lacking the abundance of christian figures, instead following Islamic tradition), which was made in Florence right before the Italian Renaissance.

In terms of what this all means, we ask ourselves – what is the point of making this mosque the way it looks today? The roman columns and arches and horseshoe arches were all borrowed from previous cultures, which tells us that the people who were responsible for building this had a sophisticated understanding of history and the past, and went as far as to implement these past successes into their own architecture. The hypostyle hall is unique to Islamic architecture for the most part. The two are usually associated with one another. The purpose of these seemingly excessive columns inside the mosque are not excessive at all, but provide guidelines for where the prayer rugs would go, allowing ample room for people in different rows to have space, as well as to create the maximum amount of space for people to pray in using these parameters. The deceptive and repetitive designs take the place of artwork that is meant to depict or commemorate religious events. This happens because, in Islam, it is forbidden to depict religious figures. This was made in such a lavish fashion – which can only be attributed to the Prince’s desire to make it resemble his home in Damascus, while also implementing elements of the classical past. I’m sure this not only made a good impression for himself, but also for the people who would soon be his new subjects, since he escaped to Cordoba from Damascus.

References:

Nuha N. N. Khoury. “The Meaning of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in the Tenth Century.” Muqarnas 13 (1996): 80-98. Web.

Ecker, Heather. “The Great Mosque of Córdoba in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries.” Muqarnas 20 (2003): 113-41. Web.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-islam/islamic-art-early/a/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba

 

Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia, what a pretty sounding name! And it certainly lives up to, and even exceeds the prettiness of its name. The Hagia Sophia is a church. And a mosque. And a museum. It has one of the most fascinating histories I’ve ever heard of for a church/mosque/museum! I’ll discuss some of the changes it’s been through over the ages and the significance of its components to the cultures that created and recreated it.

The Hagia Sophia (pronounced hai-ya sophia with a silent g, I’ve heard) translates to Holy Wisdom, and was first constructed in 415 (Khan Academy). But at this time, it was not yet the Hagia Sophia, it was known as the Regale Ekklesia, or Great Church. This building was burned down to the ground in 532 during the Nika Riots. 5 years later, Emperor Justinian I rebuilt it to the grandeur we see today in 537, when it became the Hagia Sophia. The actual architects were Anthemios of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos, who were most likely influenced by the mathematical theories of Archimedes. Its walls and foundations have Egyptian and Syrian roots, and the columns were used from the temple of Artemis. Viking inscriptions carry the lore of Northern lands. One of the most eye catching things about this structure is its dome. It is over 15 feet tall and 330 feet across, and is meant to symbolize the heavens. The base of the dome is ringed with windows, which allow light to flood the space, illuminating the works of art on the walls and its tiled mosaics. The mosaics were often commissioned by a Byzantine Emperor, who was often depicted with Christ in these mosaics. Tombstone is a reminder of when the Hagia Sophia was a Catholic church for 57 years before the Byzantines took it back. In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks and then became known as Istanbul. At this point, the Hagia Sophia was a mosque by decree of Sultan Mehmet II. Over the next century, 4 minarets were built around the structure that carry religious significance. Ornate chandeliers commemorate Salesman’s conquest of Hungary, and the giant discs on the walls are Arabic calligraphy of the names of the 4 caliphs, the first four followers of Muhammad (pbuh). In 1935, the first president of Turkey turned it into a museum, allowing us to learn from it and unmask Christian mosaics covered by plaster and the decorations on the floor covered by prayer mats.

The way that the massive dome was supported was through the use of piers supporting 4 huge spherical triangles. 

Side note: Although it came much later than the Hagia Sophia, Il Duomo of Italy constructed by Brunelleschi reminds me of this dome. It’s cupola (dome) was similar, but was made without the support of 4 spherical triangles.

The colored marble and intricate decorations on the floor and elsewhere were a result of Byzantine decree. As tine went on, the plans of this church were falling victim to earthquakes and such, causing it to be built and rebuilt a number of times. The mosaics on the sides of the walls were commissioned by different emperors, as I pointed out earlier. The images are vast, some with royal significance, some with religious significanc, and some with both. (Bissera)

After the Ottomans took over, the first 4 caliphs’ names were written in huge fancy Arabic calligraphy on the four discs, as well as the prayer mats and minarets being added, as mentioned earlier.

This is most certainly somewhere I’d love to visit someday! It is exceedingly rich in history and grandeur, and I am drawn to this structure more because it has been turned into a museum, both religions existing in the same place in a way that allows us to learn from them both, which I think it quite special.

References:

PENTCHEVA, BISSERA V. “Hagia Sophia and Multisensory Aesthetics.” Gesta 50.2 (2011): 93-111. Web.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haso/hd_haso.htm

http://www.hagiasophia.com/listingview.php?listingID=37